History of Policing in the United States

The United States drew from the experiences of England, but was determined to police in its own way.

The Colonial Era and the Early Republic

As the settlement of America began taking shape, it began apparent to the settlers that they needed to take care of themselves and others in order to maintain order through the watch system
Along the east coast, the use of constable, sheriff, and night watchman were the first law enforcement responsibilities to take shape and eventually turned into paid, uniformed positions
Once the federal government was formed, police powers were left to each state because of ethnic diversity, political control, regional differences, exploration, and a dangerous violent society
Beginning in the 1830’s and through several decades, the militia was called into to handle large scaled conflicts
After the early period of policing, law enforcement was described in three historical periods:
1. The political era (1840-1920)
2. The professional model (1920-1970)
3. The community policing era (1920-present)
The Political Era: 1840-1920
This period is called the political era because of the close ties between law enforcement and political leaders
As US cities began growing, law enforcement was worked to modernize. New York City established the first full-time paid police force as other cities followed suit
The use of the sheriff in rural communities was based upon the shire reeves of England
The federal government began the use of US Marshalls after the Civil War.

The Professional Model Era: 1920-1970

American policing was influenced by those who were upper-middle class, educated Americans called Progressives, who called for a professional police force
August Vollmer, was a chief advocate for law enforcement reforming.
Vollmer, along with others, developed a model of professional policing, which has six elements:
1. The force should stay out of politics
2. Members should be well-trained, well-disciplines, and tightly organized
3. Laws should be enforced equally
4. The force should use new technology
5. Personnel procedures should be based on merit
6. The main tasks of the police should be fighting crime.
The emphasis became changing law enforcement from a social service agency back to a crime fighting agency
W. Wilson encouraged professionalism by fighting corruption and reorganizing the department
He used two way radios to encourage communication and rotated officers so they would not become familiar with those in the community

The Community Policing Era: 1970-Present

In the 1970’s, research began showing that crime fighting was losing its effectiveness in catching and deterring criminals
Three findings were of particular importance
1. Increasing the number of patrol officers in a neighborhood had little effect on the crime rate
2. Rapid response to calls for service did not greatly increase the arrest rates
3. Improving the percentage of crimes solved in difficulty
The professional style had the tendency to isolate officers from the community. Wilson and Kelling argued that police should work on three assumptions:
1. Neighborhood disorder creates fear
2. Disorderly behavior and unattended communities signal that the citizens do not care
3. Police must reply on citizens for assistance.
Problem-oriented policing focuses on controlling underlying causes of problems such as noisy teens, battered spouses, and drug houses
Police begin to pay attention to quality of life crimes, which restore order

LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

Nearly one million people are currently employed within the scope of law enforcement at the federal, state, and local areas. They are responsible for carrying out three functions:

Maintaining order
Enforcing the law
Providing services to the community.

Federal Agencies

Federal law enforcement agencies specialize in efforts against drug trafficking, organized crime, insider stock trading, and terrorism
The FBI
- The FBI was established in 1908 and gained significance under J. Edgar Hoover who sought to increase the bureau’s professionalism and started the Uniform Crime Reporting System
- The role of the FBI is to investigate all federal crimes and assist other organizations
- The FBI has a significant role in fighting terrorism and espionage
- The Bureau protects civil rights and combats violent crime
- They fight against cybercrime attacks and white collar crimes

State Agencies

Each state in the United States has its own state law enforcement agency with the exception of Hawaii
Half of the agencies enforce statewide law enforcement task with the remaining half enforcing traffic laws
Oftentimes, the crime lab is run by the state police in efforts to assist local law enforcement.

County Agencies

Most counties within the United States have a sheriff with the exception of Alaska
Deputies patrol unincorporated and rural parts of the counties
They are responsible for operating the jail, serve court orders, and provide bailiffs
Most Sheriffs are elected by popular vote.

Municipal Agencies

Agencies with general law enforcement authority are known local police officers. The largest municipal department is New York City
There are departments with only one sworn officer
Three quarters of departments employ less than 25 officers
In a very large metropolitan area, law enforcement is divided among different agencies within various sectors of government

POLICE FUNCTIONS

Law enforcement officers are expected to maintain order, enforce the law, and provide services to the community in which they serve. Oftentimes, the police have become a type of social service agency. They are usually the only public agency that is available 24 hours a day 7 days a week.

Police Discretion

Police officers have more discretion than almost any other occupation
Patrol officers weld the most discretion while on duty
There are five factors that officers must determine when they determine how to handle a situation:
1. The nature of the crime
2. The relationship between the alleged criminal and the victim
3. The relationship between the police and the criminal or victim
4. Race/ethnicity, age, gender, class
5. Departmental policy
The officer’s most significant duty is to maintain order and enforce laws.